Plant Gene and Trait 2025, Vol.16, No.1, 32-38 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/pgt 36 6.3 Comparative analysis of orthologous genes in related species By comparing the homologous genes related to pigments in rapeseed and its two diploid ancestors - Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea, the study found that their regulatory networks have both similarities and many differences. BnaPAP1 and BnaTTG1 have similar genes in B. rapa. The functions of these genes are similar, but their expression patterns are also quite different due to different regulatory methods. He et al. (2021) found in their evolutionary research that after undergoing genomic polyploidization, rapeseed not only developed many repetitive genes but also underwent subfunctionalization. These changes have made its regulation of pigments in the flower organs more diverse. 7 Applications of Flower Color Research in Breeding 7.1 Development of rapeseed varieties with diverse flower colors The research on anthocyanins is helpful for breeders to cultivate rapeseed petal varieties with diverse colors, enhancing the ornamental value of rapeseed and increasing economic benefits. By conducting directed mutations in the BnaCRTISOgene, a variety with milky white petals was bred. After improving the BnaZEP gene, rapeseed with orange petals was developed. These achievements have made the colors of rapeseed more rich and diverse (Liu et al., 2020; Li et al., 2022). Cultivating rapeseed varieties that are both practical and aesthetically pleasing, whether used as ornamental plants or in agriculture, has great potential for development. 7.2 Enhancing pollination efficiency through color variation The color of flowers has a significant impact on attracting pollinating insects and can directly enhance the efficiency of pollination. In 2020, Chen et al.’s research found that by modifying some key genes on the anthocyanin and carotenoid synthesis pathways, such as BnaPAP1 and BnaF3’H, the color of flowers can be made brighter and more attractive to insects. In their 2022 study, Ye et al. demonstrated that apricot petals can attract more insects to visit, indicating that there is indeed a significant relationship between the color of a flower and the success of a plant's reproduction. 7.3 Integration of flower color traits into ornamental rapeseed breeding The diversification of flower colors has also become an important goal in rapeseed breeding as people’s interest in ornamental plants is increasing. Sannikova (2020) holds that the application of gene editing technology and tools such as transcriptome analysis has made the pathways for modifying pigment synthesis more accurate, thereby cultivating rapeseed varieties with unique flower colors, which can be used in landscape design and eco-tourism. Raboanatahiry et al. (2021) found that an increasing number of breeding efforts have begun to take into account both practicality and aesthetics simultaneously, demonstrating the dual value of rapeseed as both an agricultural crop and an ornamental plant. 8 Challenges and Future Directions 8.1 Limitations in current genetic studies of flower color Most current studies mainly focus on relatively clear genes and pathways such as carotenoids and flavonoids, while research on other factors that may affect flower color is still insufficient. Zhang et al. (2020) identified two gene loci related to white flowers, Brwf1 and Brwf2, in Brassica rapa - but the complete regulatory network behind them has not yet been clarified. Liu et al. (2020) found that many studies only used relatively small sample populations, which would affect the effectiveness of statistical analysis methods like GWAS. The genomes of Brassica plants are polyploid, meaning they have many similar genes, which makes it more difficult to identify which genes are truly useful and which are merely repetitive auxiliary functions. 8.2 Opportunities with emerging genomic technologies Combining high-resolution GWAS with large population segregation analysis (BSA) and whole-genome resequencing has achieved good results in identifying genes related to traits such as deep yellow petals (Yang et al., 2022). In their research in 2022, Ye et al. demonstrated that the combination of “multi-omics” methods such as transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics has enabled researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the process of pigment synthesis. The use of gene editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 makes it easy to precisely modify specific genes. Li et al. (2022) successfully changed the petal and leaf colors of rapeseed after modifying the BnaCRTISOgene.
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