Bioscience Evidence 2026, Vol.16, No.4, 249-263 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 258 (De Sousa et al., 2023). Planting flowering plants along rice field bunds can replace routine preventive insecticide spraying while maintaining rice yield and improving environmental quality and safety for both people and animals. Endophytic entomopathogenic fungi and bacterial biopesticides are also considered environmentally friendly because they leave fewer residues, have lower impacts on non-target organisms, and are highly compatible with agricultural ecosystems (Mantzoukas and Eliopoulos, 2020; Tomar et al., 2024). Excessive pesticide application often kills beneficial insects and can trigger secondary pest outbreaks. In contrast, flowering plants established along field bunds significantly increase predator abundance, parasitoid populations, and parasitism rates. Multi-location field studies consistently reported larger populations of spiders, damselflies, dragonflies, lady beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles, mirid bugs, and parasitoid wasps in ecological engineering fields. Integrated rice farming systems that combined fish, ducks, and ecological management also supported greater numbers, richness, diversity, and evenness of natural enemies. In these systems, pest control efficiency reached 52.24%, demonstrating the strong ecological benefits of integrated and eco-friendly rice production (Ranjith et al., 2024). 6 Practical Lessons for Family Farms 6.1 Monitor pests before applying insecticides For family farms, the first practical lesson is to observe the field before deciding to spray insecticides. Rice IPM begins with accurate pest identification and regular field monitoring. Farmers need to know which pest species are present, when they appear, and whether their populations are approaching damaging levels before taking control measures (Pegalepo et al., 2025). Therefore, IPM decisions are based on pest population density, economic thresholds, and the growth stage of the rice crop rather than on a fixed spraying schedule. Routine preventive spraying is often unnecessary. Studies in smallholder rice fields showed that applying insecticides every 15 days without considering actual pest populations resulted in pest densities similar to those in fields where no insecticides were used. By adopting IPM practices such as installing perching poles, conducting sweep-net sampling, and spraying only when necessary, farmers reduced insecticide use by 75% without reducing rice yield (Ali et al., 2017). Decision-support studies for smallholder farming also found that scientific pest monitoring reduced average pest control costs by 25.4% and pesticide use by 58.8% (Kopton et al., 2025). 6.2 Protect natural enemies throughout the growing season Beneficial insects should be protected throughout the entire rice growing season rather than only after pest outbreaks occur. Rice IPM depends heavily on predators and parasitoids, and conserving these native natural enemies is essential for effective biological control. Excessive insecticide use not only kills beneficial insects but also increases the risk of pest resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks, weakening the natural regulation capacity of the rice ecosystem. For this reason, many green pest management programs recommend reducing the use of broad-spectrum insecticides, especially during the early growth stage when natural enemy populations are still becoming established. Planting nectar-producing flowering plants along field bunds provides food and shelter for predators and parasitoids. These plants increase natural enemy abundance and parasitism rates, reduce pest populations, and maintain rice yields comparable to those achieved under chemical control. Other practices, including planting flowering plants, using trap crops, installing pheromone traps, releasing parasitoid wasps, and adopting rice-duck or rice-fish farming systems, also strengthen biological control while reducing the need for insecticides (Gontijo, 2019). For family farms, protecting natural enemies means avoiding unnecessary early-season spraying, preserving field refuges and flowering plants, and managing the rice field as a complete ecosystem rather than trying to eliminate every insect. 6.3 Combine multiple green pest management practices No single method can solve every pest problem in rice production. IPM is an integrated management strategy that combines biological control, cultural practices, physical control, and selective chemical control when necessary. Combining natural enemy conservation with other eco-friendly practices is much more sustainable than relying on
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