Bioscience Evidence 2026, Vol.16, No.4, 249-263 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 257 throughout the growing season. In a two-year field experiment, IPM significantly reduced the incidence of dead hearts and white heads caused by stem borers. The lowest dead heart rates were 1.23% and 1.55% in the two study years, while the white head rate was only 2.06%, indicating more effective control of stem borer damage (Alam et al., 2016). A three-year demonstration in farmers' fields in India reported similar results. Eco-friendly management reduced dead hearts, white heads, rice leaffolder damage, and rice earhead bug injury to 2.34%, 2.42%, 4.11%, and 2.56%, respectively. All values were significantly lower than those under farmers' conventional practices (Kedarnath et al., 2024). Integrated organic nutrient management also reduced damage caused by striped stem borers, rice gall midges, and rice leaffolders while improving plant growth and yield performance. Ecological engineering reduced major pest populations and crop injury by planting nectar-producing flowering plants along field bunds, keeping pest densities below the economic threshold and protecting leaf area and canopy function. In integrated rice production systems, combinations of green manure, fish, ducks, and Azolla produced the best plant growth and physiological performance while reducing pest infestation. 5.2 Improved yield components Field experiments have shown that combining ecological farming practices with biological inputs can significantly improve important yield components, including productive panicle number, panicle length, panicle weight, and the number of filled grains per panicle. The treatment combining green manure, fish, Azolla, ducks, and liquid biofertilizer or nano-urea produced 457 panicles per m², a panicle length of 31.26 cm, a panicle weight of 3.94 g, and 331.5 filled grains per panicle. These values were clearly higher than those under conventional management (Ranjith et al., 2024). In rainfed aromatic rice, the combined use of green manure, vermicompost, biofertilizer, rock phosphate, and Azolla produced 276.3 panicles per m², 25.50 grains per panicle, and a panicle weight of 3.37 g, resulting in the highest grain yield. These findings suggest that eco-friendly farming practices can consistently improve traits related to grain filling and yield formation (Medhi et al., 2024). Environmentally friendly cultivation systems combined with proper water management also improve grain development. A three-year study found that a two-week mid-season drainage period followed by alternate wetting and drying consistently produced the highest proportion of mature grains. In contrast, continuous flooding resulted in the highest proportion of immature and unfilled grains (Oh and Cho, 2025). Ecological engineering and IPM reduced white heads, leaf rolling, and panicle damage, lowering the risk of poor grain filling caused by pest injury. Plant-based pesticides further contribute by reducing feeding, slowing insect development, preventing egg laying, and killing insect eggs, while causing little damage to non-target organisms. These actions interrupt the pest life cycle and protect rice production. 5.3 Stable grain yield Eco-friendly pest management not only reduces pest damage but also helps maintain stable or even higher rice yields. In a two-year field study conducted in Barisal, Bangladesh, IPM produced grain yields of 7.3~7.5 t/ha, compared with 6.28~7.02 t/ha under non-IPM management (Alam et al., 2016). A three-year demonstration in farmers' fields in India reported an average grain yield of 47.23 q/ha under eco-friendly management, representing a 16.99% increase over farmers' conventional practices (Kedarnath et al., 2024). IPM based on economic threshold levels (ETLs) was more effective than routine preventive insecticide spraying because it reduced pest outbreaks while avoiding problems such as pesticide resistance, destruction of natural enemies, and pest resurgence. By reducing dependence on chemical pesticides and strengthening ecosystem health and agricultural resilience, IPM supports sustainable rice production under the pressures of climate change and biodiversity loss. Eco-friendly management also maintains rice quality. Studies showed that environmentally friendly water management consistently produced a higher proportion of mature grains and better grain quality over three consecutive years, while continuous flooding resulted in poorer grain quality (Oh and Cho, 2025). 5.4 Environmental benefits Conventional pesticides and fumigants can leave harmful residues that threaten human health, reduce the natural quality of rice, and pollute the environment. In contrast, IPM, ecological engineering, biological control, and biopesticides reduce dependence on chemical pesticides and lower the risk of pesticide residues from the source
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