Molecular Pathogens, 2025, Vol.16, No.1, 1-9 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 3 Figure 1 Histopathological characteristics of the livers of water buffalo infected with Fasciola gigantica (Adopted from Shi et al., 2017) Image caption: a: At 3 dpi, there was local hyperemia associated with mild filtration of lymphocytes and neutrophils. b: At 10 dpi, there was scattered vacuolation of hepatocytes, consistent with fat, along with mild to moderate focal necrosis. c: At 28 dpi, diffuse intravascular coagulation, severe infiltration of inflammatory cells mainly neutrophils and lymphocytes, and granular degeneration of the cytoplasm were observed. d: At 42 dpi, moderate to severe multifocal hemorrhages and necrosis, infiltration of eosinophils, RBCs and monocytes, and accumulation of fibroblasts were detected. e: At 70 dpi, there were mild to moderate multifocal bile duct hyperplasia and focal coagulative necrosis associated with collagen deposition. f: At 98 dpi, severe periportal fibrosis associated with multifocal inflammatory infiltrate, cellular debris, moderate multifocal hemorrhages, and granulomas with necrotic centres were detected. g: Liver tissue from uninfected animal showed normal histological architecture of the hepatic tissue. h: Adult flukes in the intrahepatic bile duct, along with epithelial hyperplasia of the duct. In all figures, tissue sections were stained with H&E and arrows point at the corresponding morphological features described above. Scale-bars: a-g, 50 μm; h, 100 μm (Adopted from Shi et al., 2017) 3.3 Comparative immunology-differences between water buffalo and other livestock 3.3.1 Genetic diversity in immune genes The water buffalo has many types of immune genes, which also makes their immune responses different from those of other animals. For example, although the NOD1 and NOD2 genes in their bodies are similar to those in other mammals, they also have some differences, which may affect their immune effects (Brahma et al., 2015). 3.3.2 Species-specific immune adaptations Water buffalo responds to some diseases lighter than other animals. For example, when they are infected with bovine babesworms, their symptoms are usually not serious. This may be because their innate immune system responds faster, which can reduce the number of parasites in the body and reduce symptoms (Benítez et al., 2018). This may be because the immune signaling pathways in their bodies are regulated in different ways. 3.3.3 Implications for disease susceptibility and resistance The immune characteristics of water buffalo will directly affect their resistance to some diseases. For example,
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