Molecular Pathogens, 2025, Vol.16, No.1, 1-9 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 2 immune to the bacteria. Even if the vaccine dose is reduced, the immunity effect produced by buffalo is similar to the standard dose (Shome et al., 2020). This is helpful for getting more buffalo vaccinated. When water buffalo get brucellosis, the lymphocytes in the body will change. These changes can be detected using a method called flow cytometry, which is useful for diagnosis (Grandoni et al., 2023). In addition, the study also found that some special miRNAs can also appear in the buffalo's blood during infection, which may become a new method to detect the condition without surgery. There is also a bacteria called Mycobacterium bovine, which can cause bovine tuberculosis and can also infect water buffalo. Special antibodies will be produced after buffalo infection, and blood tests can now detect these antibodies. However, detection methods need to be adjusted according to different animals (Lyashchenko et al., 2020). In addition, there is a method called the interferon-γ release test, which can also be used to detect whether buffalo is infected with this bacteria (Smith et al., 2020). Researchers are also trying to find some new immune signaling substances to improve the accuracy of the detection. 2.2 Viral pathogens Buffalopox is a viral disease that can make buffalo sick and may also affect their yields. There are not many studies on buffalopox, but this disease still needs to be paid attention to, especially in buffalo health management. Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease. Not only water buffalo, but many livestock can be infected. After buffalo is infected, sometimes there will be no obvious symptoms, but it may still be transmitted to other animals. Therefore, buffalo is an important factor in the prevention and control of foot-and-mouth disease. Studies have found that the antibody response of buffalo after being vaccinated is similar to that of cows. There is now a detection method called Affinity ELISA that can be used to detect vaccine effects, which is as reliable as traditional methods (Sala et al., 2023). 2.3 Parasitic infections Water buffalo can also be infected by some parasites. For example, trypanosomiasis-also known as surra-is a disease transmitted by blood-sucking insects like horseflies. After infection, water buffalo may become anemia, swelling, thinner, and in severe cases, neurological problems and even death. This disease can be detected by microscope to find parasites or by PCR. Control measures include insect extermination, vaccination and medication. Liver tablet flukesomiasis is another parasitic disease, mainly caused by a bug called “Huge Piece Twinksomiasis”. If buffalo drinks contaminated water or eats plants with insect eggs, they may be infected. The insects can enter the liver, causing liver damage, causing the buffalo to grow slowly and produce less milk. If the disease lasts for a long time, it may cause cirrhosis and even liver failure (Figure 1) (Shi et al., 2017). This disease can be diagnosed by checking feces or having blood tests. Prevention and control methods include deworming water buffalo, managing pastures well, and controlling intermediate hosts such as snails to cut off the transmission chain of parasites. 3 Immune System of Water Buffalo 3.1 Key components of the innate immune system The buffalo’s body can recognize bacteria on its own and respond quickly, which is their innate immunity. They have many “sensors” in their bodies, such as structures called NOD-like receptors (NLRs). These receptors can discover the components of bacteria and trigger an immune response. They are found in many animals and have similar structures. NLR uses signaling pathways such as NF-κB to cause the body to produce an inflammatory response, thereby fighting bacteria. There are also some “immune soldiers” in the buffalo’s body, such as macrophages and dendritic cells. These cells can present the "look" of pathogens and remind T cells to initiate a stronger immune response. T cells are very important in the body’s fight against bacteria (Jo, 2019). 3.2 Adaptive immune responses-role of t and b lymphocytes Water buffalo not only have innate immunity, but also have a system called “adaptive immunity”. This is mainly done by T cells and B cells. They can identify specific bacteria and cause more accurate responses. Studies have found that when water buffalo are infected with Brucella, the number of T and B cells in their bodies decreases. This shows that these cells are useful in fighting bacteria (Jiang, 2024). T cells can also release a substance called IFN-γ, which can activate macrophages and clear the bacteria into a cleaner (Shome et al., 2020).
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