Journal of Vaccine Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 45-55 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 52 personalized vaccines for non-small cell lung cancer has been greatly accelerated. These techniques can identify proteins produced by unique gene mutations in each tumor, that is, patient-specific neoantigens (Batool et al., 2021; Saxena et al., 2021; Banda et al., 2025). These new antigens are particularly easy to trigger the immune response in the human body and are not easily adapted by the body, so they are very suitable as targets for customizing personalized vaccines. NGS technology can carefully analyze the gene mutations in tumors, helping to quickly select and synthesize new antigen peptides or nucleic acids for vaccine production. Currently, early trials are studying whether these personalized methods are safe and can effectively stimulate immune responses. Although personalized vaccines seem promising, they still face many challenges. For instance, predicting and validating neoantigens, as well as generating vaccines within the time required for clinical treatment, are all technically complex (Saxena et al., 2021; Banda et al., 2025). Although advancements in bioinformatics, immunoinformatics and high-throughput screening technologies have made these processes somewhat easier, further improvements are still needed to make personalized vaccines cheaper and more convenient to use. With the increasing maturity of these technologies, personalized vaccines are likely to become an important means of immunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer in the future. 6.2 Synergistic strategies combining vaccines with other treatments The combination of therapeutic vaccines with immune checkpoint inhibitors (such as PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies), chemotherapy or radiotherapy and other treatment methods has become a new approach to improve the therapeutic effect of non-small cell lung cancer. Vaccines can activate and increase the number of T cells that fight tumors, while immune checkpoint inhibitors can alleviate immunosuppression. Using the two methods together can make the immune response stronger. Early clinical studies have found that compared with using only one treatment method, this combination therapy can improve the condition of more patients and prolong their lives, especially those in the advanced stage (Kiousi et al., 2023; Lahiri et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024). There are also other combined treatment methods, such as integrating vaccines with adoptive cell therapy and targeted drugs. Doing so can further change the environment around the tumor and solve the problem of tumor drug resistance (Garcia-Pardo et al., 2022). Nowadays, many clinical trials are studying these combined treatment strategies, with the aim of identifying the most appropriate dosage, treatment sequence, and selecting suitable patients. This way, not only can the best therapeutic effect be achieved, but also side effects can be reduced. Integrating vaccines into multiple treatment regimens is an important development direction for the future treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (Lahiri et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024). 6.3 The role of new drug delivery platforms and artificial intelligence in vaccine development People are developing new vaccine delivery technologies, such as mRNA vaccines, viral vectors, nanoparticles, and inhalable vaccines, hoping to make therapeutic vaccines for non-small cell lung cancer more stable, precisely reach the target, and have a stronger ability to stimulate immunity. Especially mRNA vaccines, which have a fast production speed, large output and can be customized, have shown potential to effectively stimulate human immune responses in animal experiments and early clinical trials (Batool et al., 2021; Kiousi et al., 2023). Scientists are also researching inhalable vaccines, aiming to deliver antigens directly to the lungs and enhance the immune capacity of the lungs (Chen et al., 2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning technologies are also increasingly being applied in vaccine development. By predicting which new antigens are likely to trigger immune responses, optimizing vaccine structures, and analyzing a large amount of clinical trial data, the development speed is accelerated. Artificial intelligence algorithms can more accurately select antigens, making personalized vaccine design simpler and potentially shortening the research and development time and reducing costs. With the continuous development of these technologies, they are likely to bring greater changes to the research and development of therapeutic vaccines for non-small cell lung cancer (Batool et al., 2021; Saxena et al., 2021). 7 Concluding Remarks Therapeutic vaccines are increasingly becoming an effective means of treating non-small cell lung cancer
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