Journal of Vaccine Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 1-9 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 2 2 Types of Poultry Vaccines and Their Working Principles 2.1 Traditional vaccines: the use and differences of attenuated live vaccines and inactivated vaccines Attenuated live vaccines are made by reducing the pathogenicity of pathogens. Such vaccines can reproduce in poultry but will not cause diseases. This type of vaccine can stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune response in poultry by imitating the natural infection process. Generally, one dose can provide effective protection. In poultry farming, live attenuated vaccines are often used to prevent and control Newcastle disease, infectious bursal disease, etc. They can quickly make poultry immune and also stimulate humoral and cellular immunity (Bublot, 2023; Wang et al., 2024). Inactivated vaccines are made by killing pathogens to ensure that they can no longer reproduce. For poultry with weak immunity, inactivated vaccines are safer and there is no need to worry about them returning to a pathogenic state. However, usually multiple vaccinations are required, along with adjuvants, to enable the poultry to acquire sufficient immunity (Bublot, 2023; Feng et al., 2024). For diseases such as avian influenza, inactivated vaccines are commonly used for prevention and control. They have high safety. However, compared with live attenuated vaccines, sometimes the immune response they trigger is weaker and the duration is shorter (Pantin-Jackwood and Suarez, 2017; Bublot, 2023). 2.2 The development of recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines and nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) vaccines Recombinant vaccines and viral vector vaccines represent major breakthroughs in the field of poultry immunization. This type of vaccine uses harmless viruses, such as chickenpox virus or Turkey herpesvirus, as vectors and incorporates genes encoding protective antigens of the target pathogen, enabling poultry to be immune to multiple diseases simultaneously. They can be specifically designed to express specific antigens to facilitate the distinction between infected and vaccinated poultry, and can provide good protection even if there are maternal antibodies in the poultry (Romanutti et al., 2020; Hein et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2024). Nucleic acid vaccines include DNA vaccines and RNA vaccines. They directly deliver the genetic material encoding pathogen antigens into poultry cells, causing the cells to produce antigens and thereby triggering an immune response (Bublot, 2023). This type of vaccine has a fast development speed, high safety, and strong ability to stimulate cellular and humoral immunity. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines are another new technology. They have a similar appearance to viruses but no genetic material, providing a precise, safe and immunoeffective new option for the prevention and control of poultry diseases (Astill et al., 2022; Raji et al., 2024). 2.3 Take newcastle disease, avian influenza and infectious bursal disease as examples For the prevention and control of Newcastle disease, attenuated live vaccines and inactivated vaccines can be used. Recombinant vector vaccines can also enhance the protective effect and simplify the vaccination process (Hein et al., 2021). Which vaccine to choose specifically depends on factors such as the maternal antibody situation, the expected duration of immunity, and the risk of disease outbreak (Wang et al., 2024). The prevention and control of avian influenza has evolved from mainly using inactivated vaccines to the current adoption of recombinant vaccines and vector vaccines. These new vaccines are suitable for newly hatched chicks and also help distinguish infected and vaccinated poultry (Romanutti et al., 2020). The new type of vaccine has a remarkable effect in reducing the incidence of diseases in poultry and lowering the transmission of the virus, which is very helpful for safeguarding the health of poultry flocks and public health (Pantin-Jackwood and Suarez, 2017; Astill et al., 2022). Infectious bursal disease is mainly controlled by attenuated live vaccines, but nowadays recombinant vector vaccines are also increasingly used. They can solve problems such as interference of maternal antibodies and also enable poultry to obtain long-term immunity (Hein et al., 2021). The selection of vaccines should comprehensively consider the epidemic situation of the disease, safety, and whether extensive and long-lasting protection is needed (Romanutti et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2024).
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