International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 22-31 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 28 significant estimation of pathogen diversity, evolutionary past, and specialization of hosts within the ranges. Furthermore, a shortage of longitudinal genomic information will impede the monitoring of temporal dynamics of pathogen evolution and recombination occurrences. Up-scaling operations of sampling throughout under-sampled regions and consolidating international genomic archives will be crucial towards the creation of a more representative and robust framework of comparative pathogen genomics (Catalano et al., 2024). 7.2 Ethical and logistical constraints in wild animal sampling Biological sampling of free-ranging canids is logistically and ethically difficult. Such populations may be legally protected or inhabit remote or politically volatile regions that prevent direct sampling or where it is prohibited. Sample invasive procedures also stress or injure listed populations, generating conservation and ethical concerns. Biosafety and zoonotic risk control in the field also render large-scale sampling difficult. The lack of standardized approaches for non-invasive sampling (e.g., fecal DNA, environmental swabs) limits consistency and comparison of genomic data. Future effort must be on developing ethical guidelines, non-invasive molecular tools, and trans-institutional collaborations to improve sample collection while minimizing ecological impact (Suminda et al., 2022). 7.3 Complexity and reproducibility issues in host-pathogen interaction models Reconstruction of host-pathogen relationships between canids and domestic dogs remains methodologically challenging based on species-specific immunity, ecological diversity, and lack of experimental models. In vitro cell culture and in vivo infection model systems are infrequently capable of simulating the natural pattern of infection, thereby leading to laboratory-field observation discrepancies (Ng-Nguyen et al., 2020). In addition, genetic diversity among canine species introduces variability that further complicates reproducibility of experimental results. The combination of multi-omics information, such as transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, into controlled infection models may enhance host immune modulation and pathogen adaptation knowledge but poses challenges in standardization and data integration. 7.4 Lack of cross-species, multi-center comparative studies Most recent publications on zoonotic canid pathogens address a single species or limited geographic areas and therefore create un-comparable and disjointed datasets. Un-coordinated multi-center studies in domestic and wild animals restrict comprehensive study of cross-species transmission networks and evolutionary convergence. Comparative genomics holds immense potential to reveal convergent and divergent host adaptation molecular signatures, but only through collaborative platforms that integrate genomic, ecological, and epidemiological data will this potential be attainable. The development of global consortia for cross-species pathogen genomics—in line with the One Health paradigm—will be essential to overcome such limitations and enable global interoperability and standardization of data (Tomori and Oluwayelu, 2023). 8 Concluding Remarks The recent years have witnessed remarkable leaps forward in genomic characterization of the prevailing zoonotic agents in free-ranging canids and companion dogs. Deep-sequencing-enabled high-resolution genome mapping of pathogens has revealed recombination hotspots, evolutionary patterns, and molecular host range determinants. Comparative genomics has also resolved adaptation signatures within parasitic metabolic pathways, bacterial virulence determinants, and viral envelope proteins that facilitate host persistence and transmission. In addition, genome-wide association studies have begun to elucidate host genetic determinants that regulate susceptibility and resistance in domesticated and feral dogs. Generally, these advances provide a genomic roadmap to explain pathogen diversity, evolution, and interaction among Canidae species. Comparative genomics is a valuable resource for de-mystifying wild canid and human zoonotic transmission pathways from dogs. By leveraging comparative genomic data from hosts and pathogens, scientists can determine host jump, immune evasion, and environmental adaptation molecular markers. This allows us to trace evolutionary lineages of such pathogens as rabies virus, Brucella spp., and Leishmania spp. and appreciate how genetic recombination, mutation, and selection act to shape their epidemiology. In addition, combining genomic
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