International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 1-12 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 10 Although substantial advances have been achieved, some lingering gaps in the understanding of canid immune gene evolution remain. Such a gap is that there has been largely a lack of focus on evolutionarily divergent species that might provide rich insights into the broad evolutionary trends in immune genes. Additionally, although the genetic basis of interspecies variability in immune responses has been explored, the intricate protein-protein interaction network that defines the immune system is not yet well understood. Further detailed investigations of the macro- and microevolutionary heterogeneity of immune genes are also needed. Technologically, more advanced tools and strategies for probing the real-time conformations and evolutionary time displacements of immune-related proteins are also necessary, which may unveil a more profound insight into their biological roles. These findings of immune gene evolution research in canids also have various possible implications for veterinary medicine and conservation. An understanding of the genetics of the immune response may assist in the design of specific conservation plans for endangered canid populations by the detection of animals with resistant genetic composition against certain pathogens. This data can be employed in veterinary medicine to produce more effective vaccines and therapies for infectious disease in domestic and wildlife canids. The discovery of candidate genes for pathogen recognition and inhibition can also lead to the discovery of new drug targets, which will expand the potential for controlling and treating disease in canid populations. Collectively, additional research in immune gene evolution can improve the well-being and survival of canid species by enlightened veterinary and conservation practice. Acknowledgments We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Ms. Yan from the project team for her thoughtful guidance and strong support, which played a crucial role in the successful progress of this study. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Abualrous E., Sticht J., and Freund C., 2021, Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II proteins: impact of polymorphism on antigen presentation, Current Opinion in Immunology, 70: 95-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2021.04.009 Bartocillo A., Nishita Y., Abramov A., and Masuda R., 2021, Evolution of MHC class I genes in Japanese and Russian raccoon dogs, Nyctereutes procyonoides (Carnivora: Canidae), Mammal Research, 66: 371-383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-021-00561-y Batley K., Sandoval-Castillo J., Kemper C., Zanardo N., Tomo I., Beheregaray L., and Möller L., 2021, Whole genomes reveal multiple candidate genes and pathways involved in the immune response of dolphins to a highly infectious virus, Molecular Ecology, 30: e15873. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.15873 Belov K., Sanderson C., Deakin J., Wong E., Assange D., McColl K., Gout A., Bono B., Barrow A., Speed T., Trowsdale J., and Papenfuss A., 2007, Characterization of the opossum immune genome provides insights into the evolution of the mammalian immune system, Genome Research, 17(7): 982-991. https://doi.org/10.1101/GR.6121807 Bradshaw W., and Valenzano D., 2020, Extreme genomic volatility characterizes the evolution of the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in cyprinodontiform fishes, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 287: 20200489. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0489 Clark K., and Greenwood S., 2016, Next-generation sequencing and the crustacean immune system: the need for alternatives in immune gene annotation, Integrative and Comparative Biology, 56(6): 1113-1130. https://doi.org/10.1093/ICB/ICW023 Cooper M., and Alder M., 2006, The evolution of adaptive immune systems, Cell, 124: 815-822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.001 Dearborn D., Warren S., and Hailer F., 2022, Meta-analysis of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class IIA reveals polymorphism and positive selection in many vertebrate species, Molecular Ecology, 31: 6390-6406. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.16726 Fornůsková A., Vinkler M., Pagés M., Galan M., Jousselin E., Cerqueira F., Morand S., Charbonnel N., Bryja J., and Cosson J., 2013, Contrasted evolutionary histories of two Toll-like receptors (Tlr4 and Tlr7) in wild rodents (MURINAE), BMC Evolutionary Biology, 13: 194. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-13-194
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