Molecular Pathogens, 2025, Vol.16, No.1, 1-9 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 7 7.3 Trypanosomiasis: host resistance and disease persistence Trypanosomavirus is caused by a parasite called Trypanosoma. The trouble with this disease is that it is not easy to cure completely and will become a chronic disease. The immune response in the buffalo body includes both pro-inflammatory factors and anti-inflammatory factors, and the two need to be balanced. Studies have found that some water buffalo can control the number of parasites in their bodies through a strong innate immune response, and can also reduce the severity of the disease. For example, they show relatively strong immunity to parasites like the bobbabesworm (Benítez et al., 2018). This shows that although trypanosomiasis is easy to become chronic, some immune mechanisms in water buffalo may also help them better fight the invasion of trypanosomia. 8 Applications in Disease Control and Breeding Programs 8.1 Selective breeding for disease resistance Improving water buffalo's disease resistance through breeding is an increasingly optimistic approach. Studies have found that changes in some genes, such as a site called g.4002C>T in the interleukin 10 gene, will affect whether water buffalo are prone to bovine tuberculosis (bTB). water buffalo with a certain genotype (such as CC type) are less likely to get this disease than individuals with TT type. This suggests that these genes can be used as markers to select healthier water buffalo (Iannaccone et al., 2019). Some people have also studied genes related to mastitis, which can affect milk production. Researchers have found many genetic mutations, which can be used as reference targets in future breeding (Jaiswal et al., 2021), thereby selecting water buffalo that are not prone to mastitis. 8.2 Development of immunomodulatory vaccines To control the infectious diseases of buffalo, we also need vaccines that can regulate the immune response. Some studies have pointed out that if a buffalo is infected with schistosomiasis once, it may develop immunity next time, which means that the buffalo's immune system remembers this enemy. This finding is helpful in designing new vaccines (He et al., 2018). There is currently a BoHV-1 gE deletion vaccine, and studies have shown that it can stimulate the buffalo's antibody response to the herpes virus. However, the protective effect of this vaccine needs to be confirmed more research (Martucciello et al., 2023). These studies show that we have the opportunity to develop vaccines that can not only activate the buffalo's natural immune system but also enhance acquired immunity. 8.3 Use of probiotics and immunostimulants in disease prevention In addition to vaccines, probiotics and immune enhancers can also help buffalo fight disease. These substances can enhance the innate immunity of water buffalo and allow the body to recognize and remove bacteria faster. There are some natural antibacterial substances in the buffalo, such as defensins and antibacterial peptides (AMP). They can directly kill germs and regulate the immune system's response (Chanu et al., 2018). The study also found that the number and activity of these antimicrobial peptides can be "stimulated" by some external factors, which means that we have ways to make the buffalo's immunity stronger. Therefore, combining probiotics, immune enhancers and vaccines can make the buffalo's overall disease prevention ability more stable and powerful. Acknowledgments Thanks Dr. Q. Wang from the Hainan Institution of Biotechnology for his assistance with the serious reading and helpful discussions during the course of this work. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Beechler B.R., Jolles A.E., Budischak S.A., Corstjens P.L.A.M., Ezenwa V.O., Smith M., Spaan R., Van Dam G., and Steinauer M., 2017, Host immunity nutrition and coinfection alter longitudinal infection patterns of schistosomes in a free ranging African buffalo population, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 11(12): e0006122. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006122
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