Journal of Vaccine Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 10-22 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 18 9 Concluding Remarks The long-term immune protection provided by vaccines is the result of the combined effect of many factors, including the design of the vaccine itself, the vaccination method, each person's genetic characteristics, age, physical condition, and the influence of environmental factors such as intestinal microorganisms. The protective duration of different vaccines varies greatly. Some vaccines can provide lifelong protection with just one dose, while others require regular booster shots due to a reduction in the number of antibodies in the body or an insufficient response from memory cells. Recent research has discovered some new indicators that can predict the protective duration of vaccines, such as characteristics related to platelets, as well as the role of the body's innate immune capacity and "trained" immune capacity. This also indicates that the protective effect of vaccines is determined by many factors. To ensure that the protective effect of vaccines lasts longer, multiple methods need to be adopted. Not only should the body's immune response be strengthened, but also the quality of the immune response should be improved. Choosing the right plan for the first vaccination and subsequent booster shots, extending the time the vaccine takes effect in the body, and simultaneously activating the body's acquired and innate immune capabilities are all key to achieving long-term protection. In addition, by regulating the microorganisms in the intestinal tract, using new auxiliary components, and optimizing the vaccination method, immune memory can be further strengthened, reducing the difference in the effect of vaccination among different groups of people. Only by integrating the research achievements of immunology, new scientific and technological advancements, and the monitoring of population health conditions can a new generation of vaccines with better protective effects and longer durations be developed. By leveraging systems biology and omics technologies, the method of precisely developing vaccines enables us to formulate specialized vaccination plans based on the actual needs of different individuals and groups. By identifying key immune characteristics and comprehensively analyzing information such as genes, health conditions, and the composition of gut microbiota, this precise approach can help us select the right vaccines for different groups of people, determine appropriate dosages and vaccination schedules. This personalized vaccination program aims to enhance the efficacy of the vaccine, reduce side effects, and ensure that everyone receives the same level of protection. This also points out a new development direction for future vaccination work. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Dr. Cai continuous support throughout the development of this study. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Aiello A., Ligotti M., Garnica M., Accardi G., Calabrò A., Pojero F., Arasanz H., Bocanegra A., Blanco E., Chocarro L., Echaide M., Fernández-Rubio L., Ramos P., Piñeiro-Hermida S., Kochan G., Zareian N., Farzaneh F., Escors D., Caruso C., and Candore G., 2022, How can we improve vaccination response in old people? Part I: targeting immunosenescence of innate immunity cells, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(17): 9880. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179880 Akkaya M., Kwak K., and Pierce S., 2019, B cell memory: building two walls of protection against pathogens, Nature Reviews, Immunology, 20: 229-238. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-019-0244-2 Alexandre M., Prague M., McLean C., Bockstal V., Douoguih M., and Thiébaut R., 2023, Prediction of long-term humoral response induced by the two-dose heterologous Ad26.ZEBOV, MVA-BN-Filo vaccine against Ebola, NPJ Vaccines, 8(1): 174. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-023-00767-y Allen J., Toapanta F., Chen W., and Tennant S., 2020, Understanding immunosenescence and its impact on vaccination of older adults, Vaccine, 38(52): 8264-8272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.11.002 Altomare A., Giovanetti M., Baldaro F., Ciccozzi M., Cicala M., and Guarino M., 2024, The prevention of viral infections: the role of intestinal microbiota and nutritional factors, Nutrients, 16(15): 2445. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16152445
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