Journal of Vaccine Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 10-22 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 10 Research Insight Open Access Factors Influencing Long-Term Vaccine-Induced Immunity JieZhang Institute of Life Science, Jiyang College of Zhejiang A&F University, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: jie.zhang@jicat.org Journal of Vaccine Research, 2025, Vol.15, No.1 doi: 10.5376/jvr.2025.15.0002 Received: 17 Nov., 2024 Accepted: 02 Jan., 2025 Published: 15 Jan., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Zhang, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Zhang J., 2025, Factors influencing long-term vaccine-induced immunity, Journal of Vaccine Research, 15(1): 10-22 (doi: 10.5376/jvr.2025.15.0002) Abstract This study explores the key principles that can sustain immune effects for a long time, such as the production of memory B cells and T cells, the process by which antibodies become more "powerful", and plasma cells that can function for a long time. The article also explains how different types of vaccines, added auxiliary components, vaccination methods and timing affect the body's memory of the immune response. It also analyzes personal-related factors such as age, genetic characteristics and whether there are other diseases. This study also explored the impact of nutritional status, lifestyle and the microorganisms in the intestinal tract on the regulation of the immune system. This review offers solutions to the problem of weakened immunity, with a focus on methods such as booster immunization and mixed vaccination, which are particularly helpful for people with poor immunity. This study also suggests adopting a precise vaccine development approach, combined with population data analysis, to provide guidance for the development of a new generation of vaccines with better protective effects and longer durations. Keywords Vaccine-induced immunity; Memory B and T cells; Immunosenescence; Adjuvants; Booster strategies 1 Introduction The long-term immune protection provided by vaccines is crucial for preventing infectious diseases, reducing the harm of diseases and preventing large-scale outbreaks of epidemics. Vaccines can generate long-lasting immune memory by forming long-existing memory T cells and B cells and continuously generating antibodies, which makes vaccines highly effective in controlling diseases such as tuberculosis, hepatitis B, Ebola virus and COVID-19 (Hennig et al., 2008; Han et al., 2021; Alexandre et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2023; Berber and Rose, 2024). However, due to the interaction of multiple factors such as the human body's own condition, living environment, and the vaccine itself, there are significant differences among different individuals and even different groups in terms of how long and how strong the immune effect produced by the vaccine can last (Fischinger et al., 2018; Zimmermann and Curtis, 2019; Lynn et al., 2021). The core issue of the research is why the immunity generated by vaccines weakens over time and to identify the factors that determine how long immune memory can last. The challenges faced by this study include understanding the impact of genetic differences, age, gender, other diseases and environmental factors on immune responses (Hennig et al., 2008; Fischinger et al., 2018; Zimmermann and Curtis, 2019; Fonzo et al., 2023). In addition, it is necessary to study how to adjust the gut microbiota, improve vaccine types, and optimize booster vaccination strategies to enhance the long-term protective effect of vaccines (Zimmerman and Curtis, 2019; Lynn et al., 2021). The continuous mutation of the virus, coupled with the fact that the elderly and those with weaker immune systems need longer-term immune protection, makes the research work even more difficult (Goronzy et al., 2020; Berber and Ross, 2024). This study will explore various known factors that affect the long-term immune effect of vaccines. It will analyze the immunological principles of the formation of persistent immune memory, including the generation and maintenance of memory B cells and T cells, as well as the process of increasing antibody affinity. This study will also explore factors related to the human body itself, the external environment and vaccines, which can affect the duration and effectiveness of the vaccine's protective effect. Finally, the current difficulties faced by the research will be pointed out, and the future directions for optimizing vaccine strategies will be looked forward to, striving to ensure that different groups of people can obtain strong and long-lasting immune protection.
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