Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 297-306 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 304 of T cells during natural infection. Establishing a consistent measurement technique for influenza-specific T-cell responses will facilitate larger-scale trials to verify that T cells are an indicator in influenza infection. Personalized vaccine strategies can enhance the efficacy of vaccines by taking into account immune variations. The diversity of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) has an impact on the development of T-cell vaccines, which are effective in different genetic contexts. Identify and target the conserved epitopes recognized by T cells, develop vaccines that stimulate cross-reactive immunity, and enhance specific T cell responses, such as CD4+ and CD8+T cells that play a key role in infection protection. It is crucial and important to incorporate vaccines that induce T-cell responses into influenza epidemic prevention strategies. These vaccines may reduce the severity and spread of infection, but they are not fully utilized in current epidemic prevention measures. Unlike the traditional antibody-based selection, T-cell immunity provides a persistent and adaptable defense against viral mutations. This strategy can not only protect individuals but also enhance the protection of the entire community and reduce the risk of the epidemic. By incorporating T-cell vaccines into global health plans, bridging existing immunity gaps, establishing stronger defense measures, addressing the limitations of current vaccines, and preventing future pandemics. Acknowledgments We are grateful to Dr. Luo for critically reading the manuscript and providing valuable feedback that improved the clarity of the text. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Andrews S., Graham B., Mascola J., and McDermott A., 2018, Is it possible to develop a "universal" influenza virus vaccine? Immunogenetic considerations underlying B-cell biology in the development of a pan-subtype influenza A vaccine targeting the hemagglutinin stem, Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 10(7): a029413. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a029413 Babon J., Cruz J., Orphin L., Pazoles P., Co M., Ennis F., and Terajima M., 2009, Genome-wide screening of human T-cell epitopes in influenza A virus reveals a broad spectrum of CD4(+) T-cell responses to internal proteins, hemagglutinins, and neuraminidases, Human Immunology, 70(9): 711-721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humimm.2009.06.004 Basha S., Hazenfeld S., Brady R., and Subbramanian R., 2011a, Domain-specific variation in hemagglutinin-specific T-cell responses elicited by licensed seasonal influenza vaccines (106.11), The Journal of Immunology, 186(1): 106. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.186.supp.106.11 Basha S., Hazenfeld S., Brady R., and Subbramanian R., 2011b, Comparison of antibody and T-cell responses elicited by licensed inactivated- and live-attenuated influenza vaccines against H3N2 hemagglutinin, Human Immunology, 72(6): 463-469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humimm.2011.03.001 PMid: 21396976 Clemens E., Van De Sandt C., Wong S., Wakim L., and Valkenburg S., 2018, Harnessing the power of T cells: the promising hope for a universal influenza vaccine, Vaccines, 6(2): 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6020018 Grant E., Quiñones-Parra S., Clemens E., and Kedzierska K., 2016, Human influenza viruses and CD8(+) T cell responses, Current Opinion in Virology, 16: 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2016.01.016 Isakova-Sivak I., Stepanova E., Mezhenskaya D., Matyushenko V., Prokopenko P., Sychev I., Wong P., and Rudenko L., 2021, Influenza vaccine: progress in a vaccine that elicits a broad immune response, Expert Review of Vaccines, 20: 1097-1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2021.1964961 PMid: 34350825 Jiang F., 2024, Investigation on the differentiation and functions of immunological memory cells, Journal of Vaccine Research, 14(1): 32-39. https://doi.org/10.5376/jvr.2024.14.0005 Jansen J., Gerlach T., Elbahesh H., Rimmelzwaan G., and Saletti G., 2019, Influenza virus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity induced by infection and vaccination, Journal of Clinical Virology, 119: 44-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2019.08.009 Janssens Y., Joye J., Waerlop G., Clement F., Leroux-Roels G., and Leroux-Roels I., 2022, The role of cell-mediated immunity against influenza and its implications for vaccine evaluation, Frontiers in Immunology, 13: 959379. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.959379
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