International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec © 2025 EcoEvoPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec © 2025 EcoEvoPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. EcoEvoPublisher is an international Open Access publishing platform that publishes scientific journals in the field of ecology and evolution registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada. Publisher EcoEvo Publisher Editedby Editorial Team of International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation Email: edit@ijmec.ecoevopublisher.com Website: http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation (ISSN 1927-663X) is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by EcoEvoPublisher. The journal is considering all the latest and outstanding research articles, letters and reviews in all aspects of molecular ecology and conservation, containing the contents of the ranges from the applied to the theoretical in molecular ecology and nature conservation, the policy and management with comprehensive and applicable information; the ecological bases for the conservation of ecosystems, species, genetic diversity, the restoration of ecosystems and habitats; as well as the expands the field of ecology and conservation work. All the articles published in International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. EcoEvoPublisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights.
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation (online), 2025, Vol. 15, No.3 ISSN 1927-663X https://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec © 2025 EcoEvoPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Impacts of Human Activities on Snake Biodiversity and Conservation Strategies He Jing, Li Jun International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 3, 101-110 Advances in Scomberomorus Genome Evolution-Drivers of Adaptive Evolution and Environmental Selection Xuelian Jiang, Rudi Mai International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 3, 111-122 Geographic Patterns of Genetic Structure and Global Gene Flow in Catfish Populations Wenying Hong, Rudi Mai International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 3, 123-133 Pan-Genome Analysis of Capra: Revealing the Core and Variable Genomes Shaping Goat Evolution Xuming Lü, Yeping Han International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 3, 134-143 Phylogenetic Reconstruction and Genomic Adaptive Evolution Analysis of Channa spp. ManmanLi International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 3, 144-152
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 101 Research Insight Open Access Impacts of Human Activities on Snake Biodiversity and Conservation Strategies He Jing, Li Jun Animal Science Research Center, Cuixi Academy of Biotechnology, Zhuji, 311900, Zhejiang, China Corresponding author: jun.li@cuixi.org International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3 doi: 10.5376/ijmec.2025.15.0011 Received: 14 Mar., 2025 Accepted: 22 Apr., 2025 Published: 08 May, 2025 Copyright © 2025 Jing and Jun, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Jing H., and Jun L., 2025, Impacts of human activities on snake biodiversity and conservation strategies, International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 15(3): 101-110 (doi: 10.5376/ijmec.2025.15.0011) Abstract This study comprehensively analyzes the main impact mechanisms of human activities on snake biodiversity, including habitat loss, environmental pollution, direct hunting and illegal trade, alien species invasion, and the superimposed effects of climate change. It also reviews the current status and policy differences of snake protection at the international and regional levels, and discussed the causes of the decline in snake diversity with specific cases. Studies have shown that snakes play an important role as predators and prey in the ecosystem, and have irreplaceable ecological functions in maintaining the balance of the food web and controlling farmland rodent pests. However, a large number of species are threatened by human activities such as habitat destruction, overhunting, and pollution. This study proposes a comprehensive snake protection strategy, including strengthening habitat protection and restoration, strengthening legal supervision and trade control, promoting public education and mediation of human-snake conflicts, and improving scientific research and monitoring systems. This study emphasizes the importance of snakes in maintaining ecological balance and human health, and calls on countries to strengthen cooperation and further improve snake protection measures in the future to curb the continuous decline in snake biodiversity and promote the harmonious coexistence of humans and wild animals. Keywords Snakes; Human activities; Biodiversity conservation; Habitat loss; Ecological restoration 1 Introduction As medium-sized predators, snakes are an important part of the food web in the ecosystem. On the one hand, snakes control the population of rodents, amphibians, etc. by preying on these species, thereby reducing agricultural and forestry pests and insect pests and reducing the risk of disease transmission. On the other hand, snakes themselves are also a source of food for higher trophic level predators such as birds and raptors, and play a key role in maintaining the energy flow of the food web (Vaughn et al., 2022). In addition, snakes are sensitive to environmental changes. Many studies regard snakes as "indicator species" of ecological health, such as using the heavy metal content accumulated in snakes to indicate the degree of wetland pollution (Lettoof et al., 2020). The medicinal value of snake venom has also attracted attention: modern pharmacological studies have shown that snake venom contains a variety of active ingredients, which can be used to develop drugs such as cardiovascular diseases and anti-tumor drugs (Oliveira et al., 2022). Therefore, snakes are not only crucial to maintaining ecological balance, but also provide potential medical resources and economic value for humans. However, due to historical and cultural reasons, snakes are often regarded as dangerous and frightening animals in human society. This negative perception has, to a certain extent, led to the improper hunting of snakes and the neglect of their conservation value (Kontsiotis et al., 2022; Landová et al., 2020). There are about 4,000 known snake species in the world, distributed in most terrestrial ecosystems and some waters except the Arctic and Antarctic. Snake diversity is richest in tropical regions, especially rainforest and wetland ecosystems, which are habitats for many endemic species (Marshall et al., 2020). At the same time, some arid and semi-arid regions have also nurtured unique snake faunas, showing a special pattern of reptile diversity distribution (Cox et al., 2022). Despite this, regional surveys and global assessments of snakes in recent years have shown that snake diversity is facing a severe survival crisis. Globally, snake populations are experiencing a decline or even local extinction. For example, in Central America, due to the extinction-like decline of amphibians caused by chytridiomycosis, tropical snake communities that rely
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 102 on frogs for food have collapsed, and species richness and individual numbers have dropped significantly (Zipkin et al., 2020). In parts of Africa, tens of thousands of people die each year from snake bites (WHO, 2019). The panic caused by this has led local residents to "kill snakes whenever they see them", exacerbating the anthropogenic mortality rate of snake populations (Farooq and Geldmann, 2024). This study will explore the distribution pattern and vulnerability characteristics of snake diversity, analyze how human interference factors such as habitat loss, pollution, hunting and killing trade, alien species invasion and climate change affect snake populations, sort out the current status and differences of snake protection at the international and regional levels, and deepen the understanding of the specific impact of human activities on snake diversity through three typical case studies of urbanization, illegal trade, and pesticide pollution, propose strategic recommendations for snake conservation and ecological restoration, and look forward to future research directions and protection prospects. This study aims to provide a scientific basis for wildlife protection policies, optimize habitat management, and reduce human-snake conflicts, so as to promote the realization of biodiversity conservation goals and the sustainable development of human society. 2 Distribution Pattern and Vulnerability Characteristics of Snake Biodiversity 2.1 Global and regional snake diversity hotspots Snakes are widely distributed in a variety of habitats around the world, but their diversity is obviously uneven in different regions. Tropical and subtropical regions are recognized as the areas with the most concentrated snake diversity, especially the original rainforest and wetland ecosystems, which are the diversity hotspots of many snakes. For example, the Amazon rainforest in South America, the Andes in Central America, Borneo and Indochina in Southeast Asia, etc., all have rich snake species, including a large number of regional endemic species (Marshall et al., 2020). For example, in the Australian interior and the desert grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa, the diversity of snakes and lizards is significantly higher than that of other vertebrate groups, forming a phenomenon different from the diversity pattern of amphibians and birds (Cox et al., 2022). In addition, some island ecosystems have evolved highly unique snake species due to geographical isolation, such as the colubrid snakes in the Galapagos Islands and the blind snakes on some islands in West Asia. 2.2 Ecological sensitivity and evolutionary constraints of snakes Although snakes are geographically distributed in a wide range of environments, many snake species show certain vulnerabilities in ecological needs and evolutionary characteristics, making them particularly sensitive to environmental changes (Reading et al., 2010). Many snakes are "K-strategy" species, with evolutionary characteristics of long lifespan and low reproductive rate. . Demographic studies have shown that removing only a small number of breeding female snakes can turn the growth rate of some endangered snake populations negative and show a sustained decline (Jolly et al., 2022). Many snakes also have habitat specificity and narrow geographical distribution. Some arboreal or aquatic snakes are only adapted to specific microhabitats, such as vine snakes in the Amazon canopy or cichlid snakes in clear streams. These species cannot respond flexibly to habitat fragmentation, and once the original habitat is destroyed, it is difficult to move to alternative habitats, thus facing the risk of local extinction (Wanger et al., 2023). In addition, as cold-blooded animals, snakes are strongly restricted by environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity, and their behavior and activity patterns are extremely sensitive to climate change. For example, tropical species are active all year round but need to avoid high temperatures and droughts, while temperate species hibernate in winter and have a significant peak in activity in summer. If climate patterns change, it may cause their reproduction and hunting rhythms to be disrupted or their physical condition to decline (Martinez et al., 2024). Snakes lack secondary defense and migration capabilities in evolution. For example, many snakes in Australia cannot resist the toxins of invasive cane toads, and lack the instinct to avoid such prey in evolution, resulting in large-scale population deaths (Phillips and Shine, 2006). 2.3 Response characteristics to human disturbance Different snake species show diverse responses to human disturbance. Some species have certain adaptability and can even use artificial environments to a certain extent, while others are extremely sensitive to disturbance and
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 103 decline rapidly (Vaughn et al., 2022). In urban and agricultural landscapes, dominant "broadly adaptable" snake species often appear: for example, red-banded snakes are common in farmlands in Southeast Asia, and there are still a large number of colubrids and king snakes in suburban areas of North America. These species often have a broad-spectrum diet, strong reproductive capacity, and a certain ability to avoid humans, so they can survive in human environments with fragmented landscapes and mosaic habitats (Lettoof et al., 2021). In addition, some snakes with weak or non-venomous venom are more likely to be tolerated in areas with human disturbance because they are not considered a direct threat (Kontsiotis et al., 2022). On the contrary, many snakes are extremely sensitive to human activities. Habitat-specific species, such as blind snakes or rock-dwelling pit vipers that live in leaf litter at the bottom of the forest, are difficult to survive once their habitat is slightly damaged, and they usually disappear first in disturbed areas. Secondly, large and highly venomous snakes are often directly eliminated by humans. Although some snakes are not actively hunted, they have poor ability to avoid human activities, so they cannot maintain their populations under disturbances such as farmland expansion and road construction. Under human disturbance, snake communities often show a trend of homogenous species composition and reduced functional diversity, that is, a few disturbance-resistant species dominate, while sensitive species gradually disappear (Zipkin et al., 2020). 3 Mechanisms of Human Impact on Snake Diversity 3.1 Habitat loss and fragmentation Habitat loss and fragmentation are widely considered to be the primary drivers of global biodiversity decline, and snakes are no exception (Leal-Santos et al., 2020). The sharp decline in habitats has directly led to the disappearance of habitats for many snake populations. Large snakes (such as pythons and boas) are particularly sensitive to habitat loss because of their large range of movement and their greater reliance on large intact habitats. For example, the Asian reticulated python has lost its egg-laying and foraging sites due to lowland rainforest deforestation and swamp development, and its population has plummeted in some areas (Marshall et al., 2020). Habitat fragmentation isolates and divides snake populations. The dense distribution of roads, farmlands, and towns has fragmented previously connected habitat patches, and snake individuals face a high risk of death (such as road crushing) when moving between different patches, or simply cannot cross open areas. Studies have found that many snakes are reluctant to cross open farmland or urban built-up areas, but prefer to move along remaining forest belts or wetlands, which limits their range of activities to fragmented habitat patches. In addition, habitat fragmentation increases the chances of snakes coming into contact with humans. In fragmented landscapes, snakes may break into farmland and villages for food and reproduction, leading to an increase in human-snake conflicts (Kjoss and Litvaitis, 2001; Nordberg et al., 2021). 3.2 Environmental pollution Environmental pollution caused by human activities is quietly threatening the survival of snakes, including the accumulation of pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals and industrial chemicals in the ecosystem, which has an adverse effect on individual health and population dynamics of snakes. As a predator at a high trophic level in the food web, snakes will undergo bioaccumulation by feeding on organisms, further concentrating pollutants in their prey into themselves. This makes snakes often the "terminal victims" of environmental pollution (Lettoof et al., 2020; Hoang et al., 2021). Pesticide pollution affects snake populations in many ways. Highly toxic pesticides and herbicides may directly poison snake prey (such as frogs and small mammals), causing a shortage of snake food. Chemicals such as anticoagulants and rodenticides harm snakes through the food chain. The endocrine disruption effects of pesticides may also affect the sexual differentiation and behavior of snakes. It should be noted that snakes are secretive animals, and the impact of pollution on their populations is often not easy to detect. Phenomena such as changes in body color and decreased athletic ability of snakes may be ignored, but the population may have been quietly decreasing.
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 104 3.3 Direct hunting and illegal trade In the complex relationship between humans and snakes, direct hunting and illegal trade are one of the most obvious factors affecting snake diversity. This human-induced death and predatory collection directly reduce the number of snakes in the wild and damage the population structure (Reading et al., 2010). Direct hunting of snakes by humans is common in many parts of the world due to fear, disgust, or other prejudices or profit-driven reasons (Figure 1) (Pandey et al., 2016; Landová et al., 2020). The threat of illegal trade to snake diversity is becoming increasingly prominent. The trade of snakes and their products, including live pets, snake skins and leather, Chinese medicinal materials, and table game, has formed a transnational profit chain. Studies have shown that more than 35% of reptile species in the world have trade records on the Internet, of which about three-quarters are not on the CITES control list (Marshall et al., 2020). Faced with this situation, countries and international organizations have taken measures to curb illegal snake trade. Figure 1 Types of snakes that humans generally fear and hate (Adopted from Landová et al., 2020) Image caption: A): fear-eliciting snakes: Sahara sand viper (Cerastes vipera), Sochurek's saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus sochureki) and Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica); B) disgust-eliciting snakes: Eurasian blind snake (Xerotyphlops vermicularis), northern rubber boa (Charina bottae), and brahminy blindsnake (Indotyphlops braminus) (Adopted from Landová et al., 2020) 3.4 Alien species invasion and ecological substitution The impact of alien invasive species on snake diversity is a complex and vigilant issue. Invasive species can directly or indirectly harm local snake populations through predation competition, habitat change, disease transmission and other means (Reading et al., 2010). A typical case is the killing of snakes by invasive predators. For example, after the introduction of the Indian mongoose to Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean, the native blunt-headed snakes on the island were preyed on in large numbers, and the population once dropped by more than 90% (Van Moorleghem et al., 2019; Subrata et al., 2020). Another typical case is the poisoning of snakes by invasive amphibians. The cane toad (Rhinella marina) introduced to Australia in the 20th century secretes highly toxic substances. Many local snakes (such as the death pit viper and the king snake) will soon be poisoned and die after accidentally eating the toad (Phillips and Shine, 2006). The competition of alien invasive species on snakes cannot be ignored. Some invasive predators may occupy similar ecological niches as native snakes, causing competition for food and space, thus replacing the ecological role of snakes. In addition, invasive species may carry new pathogens, posing a health threat to native snakes. 3.5 Superimposed impacts of climate change Global climate change is considered one of the main factors threatening biodiversity in the coming decades, and its impact on snake diversity often occurs in combination with other disturbances (Reading et al., 2010). Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns will directly affect the physiological ecology of snakes. For example, warming may expand the potential distribution range of some drought-tolerant snake species while reducing the suitable habitat for snake species that rely on moist forests (Martinez et al., 2024). Frequent extreme weather events are also a major feature of climate change, which has a severe impact on snake habitats and populations. Continuous droughts may lead to a sharp decline in snake prey such as amphibians, which in turn causes snake species that feed on frogs to starve (Zipkin et al., 2020).
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 105 On the contrary, abnormally heavy rainfall and flooding can destroy snake nests, force ground-dwelling snakes to flee, and make them more vulnerable to predation or hunting by humans (Ochoa et al., 2020). Climate change may also affect the reproduction and development of snakes. Reptiles whose sex is determined by temperature (such as some turtles and tortoises) will experience a deviation in sex ratio due to climate warming. Although the sex of most snakes is determined by genetics, temperature changes can still affect the success rate of embryonic development and the survival rate of young snakes. In addition, climate change is often intertwined with other threats, increasing the survival pressure of snakes (Reading et al., 2010). 4 International and Regional Status of Snake Conservation 4.1 Analysis of the status of snakes in the IUCN Red List and CITES Appendices Due to the important ecological value and endangered status of snakes, international attention to snake conservation has increased in recent years. In the IUCN Red List, a large number of snakes have been evaluated and listed in the threat level. As of 2022, IUCN has evaluated more than 1,800 snake species, of which about 25% are rated as vulnerable (VU) or higher, which is similar to the overall reptiles (Cox et al., 2022). The data from the Red List highlight that some families and genera of snakes are particularly threatened. For example, many large species of giant snakes (Pythonidae, Boa constrictors) are generally listed as endangered due to the leather trade and habitat loss, such as the Indian rock python (Python molurus), which is listed as vulnerable (VU). CITES already covers the main commercially valuable snakes. However, there are still a large number of frequently traded snake species that are not included in the CITES appendices, resulting in a lack of constraints on their international trade. For example, many non-venomous colubrids and small tree snakes are also sold in large quantities as pets, but they have not received much attention because they are "not well-known" (Marshall et al., 2020). 4.2 Differences in regional protection laws and policies There are large differences in the laws and policies for the protection of snakes in various countries and regions. This is closely related to factors such as local snake diversity, cultural concepts, and law enforcement capabilities. Take China as an example. As one of the countries with rich snake diversity, China has legally listed many rare snakes as key protected wild animals. For example, pythons, king cobras, and coral snakes are included in the national first- or second-level protection list, and hunting and trade are prohibited. In contrast, the snake protection laws in some Southeast Asian countries are relatively weak or law enforcement is not in place. For example, although Indonesia and Malaysia have wildlife protection laws, some species are not included in the protection list when it comes to snakes, and there is still a legal or semi-legal snake catching industry in the local area to supply the international leather market. Some Latin American countries (such as Mexico and Brazil) have a mature wildlife protection system, snakes are protected by law, and many amphibian and reptile sanctuaries have been established. However, there are also countries with an imperfect legal system, no special protection regulations for snakes, and a lack of trade control, which has led to a large number of snakes being captured and exported in the region without anyone paying attention (Marshall et al., 2020). 4.3 Survey on awareness and participation in snake protection at the community level The attitude and participation of the public and the community towards snakes largely affect the success or failure of snake protection (Pandey et al., 2016). Research surveys show that widespread fear of snakes and negative stereotypes are the main social obstacles to snake protection (Landová et al., 2020). The current participation in snake protection at the community level is still low. Surveys show that compared to saving cute large mammals or colorful birds, few people are willing to donate or devote their energy to protecting snakes. Some countries lack scientific popularization about snakes, so the public knows little about the ecological role and endangered status of snakes. A study pointed out that in the southern United States, about 54% of college students surveyed could not correctly distinguish between common venomous snakes and non-venomous snakes. Lack of knowledge led them to adopt an extreme avoidance or rejection attitude towards snakes (Vaughn et al., 2022). Therefore, to improve community protection awareness, it is necessary to strengthen publicity and education and advocate rational understanding (Kontsiotis et al., 2022).
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 106 5 Specific Case Analysis of Human Activities Affecting Snake Biodiversity 5.1 Impact of urbanization on snake species diversity Urbanization is the land use form with the highest intensity of human activities, and its impact on snake diversity is representative. In highly urbanized areas, snake habitats are replaced by hard surfaces and buildings, and species diversity usually decreases significantly. However, a few highly adaptable snake species can survive and reproduce in cities, forming a special structure of urban snake communities. Habitat fragmentation and isolation are prominent problems facing snakes in urban environments. Urban green spaces such as parks and wetlands have become "islands" for snakes to survive, and there is a lack of connection between snake groups. Taking the wetlands in Perth, Australia as an example, the western tiger snake is divided into different lake wetlands. Researchers used genetic analysis to find that the genetic diversity of tiger snake populations separated by roads and residential areas in the city is significantly lower than that of suburban populations connected to wetlands (Figure 2) (Lettoof et al., 2021). Figure 2 Map the studied populations of Notechis scutatus occidentalis and land-use of Perth, Western Australia (Adopted from Lettoof et al., 2021) Image caption: Red points represent individual Western tiger snakes, and yellow points represent Eastern tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus scutatus). Grey shading represents the current distribution extent of the species (light = Western, dark = Eastern; modified from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Adopted from Lettoof et al., 2021) Road traffic also causes direct harm to urban snakes. On roads around cities, the bodies of snakes such as colubrids and rat snakes that have been crushed to death are often seen. Human-snake conflicts also occur from time to time in cities. Snakes occasionally enter homes or campuses, causing residents to panic and call the police or kill them themselves. Although the urban environment is generally unfavorable to snakes, it is worth noting that some snakes have shown adaptation to and even utilization of cities. For example, American colubrids and cottonmouths prey on excess rodents and amphibians in urban park waters, which in turn provide a rich source of food (Bernarde et al., 2000; Zhu et al., 2025). 5.2 The dilemma of illegal trade in snakes and species protection The illegal trade in wild snakes is widespread around the world, including both the smuggling and sale of live snakes and the black market trading of snake skins, snake gallbladders and other products. This illegal trade poses a serious challenge to snake protection and is one of the outstanding problems in current biodiversity conservation. According to TRAFFIC statistics, law enforcement agencies in Southeast Asian countries seized 292 cases of snake smuggling between 2012 and 2021, and seized at least 17 589 live snakes, 76 476 snake skins and parts of various types. Illegal trade poses multiple dilemmas to the protection of snake species: 1) Over-capture leads to a sharp decline in species populations and even an increased risk of extinction. 2) Difficulties in law enforcement and cross-border characteristics complicate protection and supervision. Illegal trade in snakes is often carried out through covert channels, such as anonymous sales on online platforms and mixed exports with legal aquaculture products (Marshall et al., 2020). 3) Conflicts between profit-driven and community participation. In some
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 107 economically underdeveloped areas, catching and selling snakes is a source of income for some residents, and a simple ban will cause livelihood problems. 5.3 Ecotoxicological study on pesticide pollution on snake populations The large-scale use of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides has had a wide range of impacts on wildlife, among which snakes, as high-level predators in the food web, have gradually received attention in recent years. A study from urban wetlands in Australia focused on heavy metal and pesticide pollution. The researchers tested the concentrations of pollutants in sediments and livers of western tiger snakes in four wetlands in the same basin and found that both sediments from wetlands with high urbanization and tiger snakes accumulated more heavy metals (such as arsenic, lead, and mercury) and organic pesticide residues. In the most polluted lakes, the concentration of molybdenum in the livers of tiger snakes set the highest value measured for terrestrial snakes worldwide (Lettoof et al., 2020). Although these tiger snakes did not die immediately, their health was worrying. The impact of pesticides and pollution on snakes is often hidden and far-reaching, and it is necessary to increase attention, strengthen interdisciplinary research and management, and integrate ecotoxicology perspectives into snake conservation practices to mitigate the harm of human chemical pollution to snake diversity. 6 Countermeasures for Snake Protection and Ecological Restoration Recommendations 6.1 Habitat protection and restoration Habitat protection is the cornerstone of snake diversity conservation. Given that habitat loss and fragmentation are one of the main reasons for the decline of snake populations (Reading et al., 2010), it is imperative to protect existing key habitats and implement ecological restoration to expand and connect suitable habitats. Habitat protection and restoration require multi-sectoral collaboration and integrate biodiversity protection into land use planning and community development. Only by protecting "where snakes live" can the stability and diversity of snake populations be fundamentally guaranteed. As shown in a study on Colombian snakes: after analyzing the overlap between snake distribution and remaining native habitats, it was found that most of the priority protection areas are concentrated in areas such as the Amazon and Orinoco where there are still large areas of habitat. If these areas can be effectively protected, the country's snake diversity conservation rate will be greatly improved (Pulido and Velazco, 2025). 6.2 Legal supervision and trade control Sound laws and regulations and strict law enforcement supervision are institutional guarantees to ensure that snakes are effectively protected. Countries should continuously improve their legal systems based on their own snake resources and threat situations, and curb the impact of illegal trade on snakes through international cooperation. First, improve the level of domestic legal protection. For endangered and endemic snake species, the legal protection level should be upgraded, and hunting, killing and trading should be clearly prohibited. Second, strengthen law enforcement and public awareness of law-abiding. The government needs to increase the human and material resources of wildlife law enforcement departments, carry out regular inspections and surprise inspections in snake habitats and markets, and crack down on illegal snake catching and selling. It is also necessary to strengthen international trade supervision. As an international convention, CITES provides a framework, and countries should fulfill their obligations and strictly control the import and export activities of snakes listed in the appendix. In addition, encourage the development of artificial breeding and legal trade to replace illegal sources (Hierink et al., 2020; Aust, 2022). Finally, legal supervision also needs to cooperate with communities and the public. The government should listen to the demands of local residents, incorporate community interests into the formulation of relevant policies, and enable protection regulations to gain grassroots support. 6.3 Education and publicity and mitigation of human-snake conflicts It is particularly important to eliminate misunderstandings and fears and promote public participation in snake protection. Education and publicity can improve the public's awareness of the ecological value of snakes, reduce unnecessary hostility and killing, and alleviate human-snake conflicts at the source (Pandey et al., 2016). For example, snake science education can be incorporated into regular environmental education content, targeted
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 108 public training can be carried out to improve people's skills in getting along safely with snakes, emergency response mechanisms can be established to scientifically resolve human-snake conflicts, and cultural power and community participation can be used. Through education and publicity and the improvement of conflict handling mechanisms, human harm and retaliation against snakes can be greatly reduced, and the public can gradually change from "fearing and hating snakes" to "understanding and protecting snakes." Only when the public truly understands and supports snake protection actions can this work be deeply rooted in the hearts of the people and last for a long time. 6.4 Scientific research and monitoring system construction Strengthening scientific research and monitoring related to snakes plays a key role in formulating effective protection strategies and evaluating protection results. For a long time, snakes have been studied less than birds and mammals because they are difficult to find and catch (Wang et al., 2025). By conducting snake resource and threat surveys, establishing a regular monitoring system, strengthening scientific research capacity building and research projects, and applying research and monitoring results to management decisions, a systematic monitoring system can be established to make up for the lack of data and improve the scientific basis for protection. A complete monitoring system is the "early warning aircraft" and "compass" for snake protection, which can detect problems, guide actions, and ensure that protection work is always based on reliable data and scientific basis. 7 Concluding Remarks Human activities pose serious threats to snake diversity in many ways. Habitat destruction has led to a continuous reduction in the living space of snakes, forced isolation of populations, and many species are on the verge of extinction. Environmental pollution accumulates through the food chain, directly damaging the health and reproductive capacity of snakes. Illegal hunting and trade activities directly reduce the number of snake populations and destroy their genetic diversity. At the same time, climate change and invasive alien species have further exacerbated the survival pressure of snakes, changing their habitats and introducing new competitors. These threats often overlap with each other, forming a "multi-threat dilemma", leading to a continuous decline in global snake diversity. Since snakes generally receive little public attention, their population decline is often difficult to detect in time, which brings additional challenges to conservation work. In response to the severe situation of snake conservation, a systematic conservation strategy is needed. The first task is to strengthen habitat protection and restoration, and provide snakes with sufficient living space by establishing a network of nature reserves and ecological corridors. At the same time, it is necessary to strictly control various threat factors, improve laws and regulations to combat illegal trade, and promote environmentally friendly agricultural practices. Public education and community participation are also crucial. Through popular science propaganda, misunderstandings can be eliminated and the concept of harmonious coexistence between humans and snakes can be cultivated. In addition, it is necessary to increase investment in scientific research, use modern technical means to strengthen monitoring, and develop key technologies such as artificial breeding to provide scientific support for conservation practices. These measures require the joint efforts of governments, scientific research institutions and community organizations to form a long-term protection mechanism. Looking to the future, with the improvement of global ecological protection awareness, snake protection is expected to make significant progress. A scientifically planned protected area system will cover more key habitats and effectively maintain snake populations. In-depth public education will significantly reduce human-snake conflicts, while technological advances will provide new tools and methods for conservation work. As an important part of the ecosystem, the effectiveness of snake protection is directly related to the achievement of global biodiversity goals. Through continuous scientific management and international cooperation, humans will eventually reach a state of harmonious coexistence with snakes and jointly maintain the integrity and stability of the earth's life network. Acknowledgments We would like to thank MS.Han continuous support throughout the development of this study.
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 109 Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Aust P., 2022, An assessment of the commercial production of CITES-listed snake species in Viet Nam and China, IUCN SSC Boa and Python Specialist Group, 2022: 1-10. Bernarde P., Moura-Leite J., Machado R., and Kokobum M., 2000, Diet of the colubrid snake Thamnodynastes strigatus (Günther, 1858) from Paraná State, Brazil, with field notes on anuran predation, Brazilian Journal of Biology, 60(4): 695-699. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-71082000000400022 Cox N., Young B., Bowles P., Fernandez M., Marin J., Rapacciuolo G., Böhm M., Brooks T., Hedges S., Hilton-Taylor C., Hoffmann M., Jenkins R., Tognelli M., Alexander G., Allison A., Ananjeva N., Auliya M., Avila L., Chapple D., Cisneros-Heredia D., Cogger H., Colli G., De Silva A., Eisemberg C., Els J., Grant T., Hitchmough R., Iskandar D., Kidera N., Martins M., Meiri S., Mitchell N., Molur S., Nogueira C., Ortíz J., Penner J., Rhodin A., Rivas G., Rödel M., Roll U., Sanders K., Santos-Barrera G., Shea G., Spawls S., Stuart B., Tolley K., Trape J., Vidal M., Wagner P., Wallace B., and Xie Y., 2022, A global reptile assessment highlights shared conservation needs of tetrapods, Nature, 605(7909): 285-290. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04664-7 Farooq H., and Geldmann J., 2024, The fear factor—snakes in Africa might be at an alarming extinction risk, Conservation Letters, 17(1): e12998. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12998 Hierink F., Bolon I., Durso A., De Castaneda R., Zambrana-Torrelio C., Eskew E., and Ray N., 2020, Forty-four years of global trade in CITES-listed snakes: trends and implications for conservation and public health, Biological Conservation, 248: 108601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108601 Hoang A., Tu M., Takahashi S., Kunisue T., and Tanabe S., 2021, Snakes as bimonitors of environmental pollution: a review on organic contaminants, Science of the Total Environment, 770: 144672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144672 Jolly C.J., Von Takach B., and Webb J.K., 2021, Slow life history leaves endangered snake vulnerable to illegal collecting, Scientific Reports, 11(1): 5380. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84745-1 Kjoss V., and Litvaitis J., 2001, Community structure of snakes in a human-dominated landscape, Biological Conservation, 98: 285-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00167-1 Kontsiotis V.J., Rapti A., and Liordos V., 2022, Public attitudes towards venomous and non-venomous snakes, Science of the Total Environment, 831: 154918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154918 Landová E., Peléšková Š., Sedláčková K., Janovcová M., Polák J., Rádlová S., Vobrubová B., and Frynta D., 2020, Venomous snakes elicit stronger fear than nonvenomous ones: psychophysiological response to snake images, PLoSONE, 15(8): e0236999. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236999 Lettoof D., Bateman P., Aubret F., and Gagnon M., 2020, The broad-scale analysis of metals, trace elements, organochlorine pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in wetlands along an urban gradient, and the use of a high trophic snake as a bioindicator, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 78: 631-645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00724-z Lettoof D.C., Thomson V.A., Cornelis J., Bateman P.W., Aubret F., Gagnon M.M., and von Takach B., 2021, Bioindicator snake shows genomic signatures of natural and anthropogenic barriers to gene flow, PLoS ONE, 16(10): e0259124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259124 Leal-Santos G., Tambosi L., Pavoine S., and Martins M., 2024, Multiscale effects of habitat changes on diversity of rainforest snakes, Biodiversity and Conservation, 33: 1793-1810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-024-02834-9 Marshall B.M., Strine C., and Hughes A.C., 2020, Thousands of reptile species threatened by under-regulated global trade, Nature Communications, 11(1): 4738. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18523-4 Martinez P., Da Fonseca Teixeira I., Siqueira-Silva T., Da Silva F., Lima L., Chaves-Silveira J., Olalla-Tárraga M., Gutiérrez J., and Amado T., 2024, Climate change-related distributional range shifts of venomous snakes: a predictive modelling study of effects on public health and biodiversity, The Lancet Planetary Health, 8(3): e163-e171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(24)00005-6 Nordberg E., Ashley J., Hoekstra A., Kirkpatrick S., and Cobb V., 2021, Small nature preserves do not adequately support large-ranging snakes: movement ecology and site fidelity in a fragmented rural landscape, Global Ecology and Conservation, 28: e01715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01715 Ochoa C., Bolon I., Durso A., De Castañeda R., Alcoba G., Martins B., Chappuis F., and Ray N., 2020, Assessing the increase of snakebite incidence in relationship to flooding events, Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2020: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6135149
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 101-110 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 110 Oliveira A.L., Viegas M.F., da Silva S.L., Soares A.M., Ramos M.J., and Fernandes P.A., 2022, The chemistry of snake venom and its medicinal potential, Nature Reviews Chemistry, 6(7): 451-469. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-022-00393-7 Pandey D., Pandey G., Devkota K., and Goode M., 2016, Public perceptions of snakes and snakebite management: implications for conservation and human health in southern Nepal, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 12: 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0092-0 Phillips B., and Shine R., 2006, An invasive species induces rapid adaptive change in a native predator: cane toads and black snakes in Australia, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273: 1545-1550. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3479 Pulido K.G.R., and Velazco S.J.E., 2025, On protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures to conserve biodiversity: exploring their contribution to Colombian snakes, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, 23(2): 110-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2025.04.002 Reading C., Luiselli L., Akani G., Bonnet X., Amori G., Ballouard J., Filippi E., Naulleau G., Pearson D., and Rugiero L., 2010, Are snake populations in widespread decline?, Biology Letters, 6: 777-780. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0373 Subrata S., Siregar S., André A., and Michaux J., 2020, Identifying prey of the Javan mongoose (Urva javanica) in Java from fecal samples using next-generation sequencing, Mammalian Biology, 101: 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42991-020-00086-y Van Moorleghem C., Huyghe K., and Van Damme R., 2019, Chemosensory deficiency may render island-dwelling lizards more vulnerable to invasive predators, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 129(1): 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blz142 Vaughn A.K., Larson L.R., Peterson M.N., and Pacifici L.B., 2022, Factors associated with human tolerance of snakes in the southeastern United States, Frontiers in Conservation Science, 3: 1016514. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2022.1016514 Wanger T.C., Brook B.W., Evans T., and Tscharntke T., 2023, Pesticides reduce tropical amphibian and reptile diversity in agricultural landscapes in Indonesia, PeerJ, 11: e15046. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15046 Wang H., Zhang S., Zhang C., Liu Z., Huang Q., and Jiang Y., 2025, Snake-DETR: a lightweight and efficient model for fine-grained snake detection in complex natural environments, Scientific Reports, 15: 1282. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-84328-w World Health Organization (WHO), 2019, Snakebite envenoming: a strategy for prevention and control, WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases Journal, 7(7): e837-e838. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30225-6 Zipkin E.F., DiRenzo G.V., Ray J.M., Rossman S., and Lips K.R., 2020, Tropical snake diversity collapses after widespread amphibian loss, Science, 367(6479): 814-816. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay5733 Zhu Z., Yang X., Kang W., Cai C., and Zhou Q., 2025, Chromosome-level genome assembly and annotation of the Amur rat snake Elaphe schrenckii, Genome Biology and Evolution, 17(5): evaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evaf086
International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3, 111-122 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 111 Research Insight Open Access Advances in Scomberomorus Genome Evolution-Drivers of Adaptive Evolution and Environmental Selection Xuelian Jiang1, RudiMai 2 1 Institute of Life Sciences, Jiyang Colloge of Zhejiang A&F University, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China 2 Tropical Specialty Crops Research Center, Hainan Institute of Tropical Agricultural Resources, Sanya, 572026, Hainan, China Corresponding author: rudi.mai@hitar.org International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 2025, Vol.15, No.3 doi: 10.5376/ijmec.2025.15.0012 Received: 22 Mar., 2025 Accepted: 27 Apr., 2025 Published: 15 May, 2025 Copyright © 2025 Jiang and Mai, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Jiang X.L., and Mai R.D., 2025, Advances in Scomberomorus genome evolution-drivers of adaptive evolution and environmental selection, International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation, 15(3): 111-122 (doi: 10.5376/ijmec.2025.15.0012) Abstract This study systematically analyzes the research progress of Spanish mackerel genome evolution, focusing on its adaptive evolution mechanism and the driving role of environmental selection. Starting from the biological characteristics and ecological adaptation of the species, the current status of Spanish mackerel genome research is explained, and the molecular mechanism of Spanish mackerel adaptive evolution is explained, such as the molecular adaptation mechanism of Spanish mackerel to environmental factors such as temperature and salinity. The research progress of Spanish mackerel genome evolution driven by environmental selection is introduced, and the adaptive evolution examples at the genome level were analyzed with specific cases. Comparative genomics studies have shown that Spanish mackerel is unique in genome structure and function compared with other scombroid fish, which can help identify key genes and signaling pathways related to environmental adaptation. The progress of functional genomics research shows that stress resistance genes such as heat shock proteins are selected and expanded under environmental stresses such as salinity and temperature, while specific metabolic genes (such as FADS2 related to Omega-3 fatty acid synthesis) may participate in the adaptation process through epigenetic regulation. At the same time, this study also summarizes the challenges faced by current research and looked forward to future research directions and application prospects, in order to provide a reference for the sustainable utilization and ecological protection of Spanish mackerel resources. Keywords Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus); Genome; Adaptive evolution; Environmental selection; Comparative genomics 1 Introduction The Spanish mackerel (commonly known as bā yú) belongs to the family Scombridae and holds significant importance in marine ecosystems and fisheries. The Scombridae family includes about 51 species of pelagic fish, which are widely distributed in coastal and oceanic waters in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. As a branch of the Scombridae family, Spanish mackerel (genus Scomberomorus) has nearly 20 species, which are mainly distributed along the coasts of tropical to temperate waters around the world, such as the northwest Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean and parts of the Atlantic Ocean, and have long-distance migratory habits (Nesnas et al., 2022; Zeng et al., 2022). Spanish mackerel is of moderate size (generally 50 to 100 cm long for adult fish), has delicious meat, is rich in high-quality protein and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and is an important source of nutrition in the human diet. Therefore, Spanish mackerel has always been an important economic fish species in coastal fisheries, and high-yield fisheries have been formed in East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean coast and other regions (Shang et al., 2022; Santana et al., 2024). Spanish mackerel is at a high trophic level in the food web and is a typical top predator, mainly preying on small and medium-sized fish and cephalopods. The rise and fall of its population is of great significance to maintaining the stability of the marine ecosystem and the sustainable use of fishery resources. However, Spanish mackerel resources have faced severe challenges in recent years. On the one hand, overfishing has caused a decline in the number of some populations and changes in life history parameters such as early maturity and miniaturization of individuals; on the other hand, climate warming and changes in the marine environment are affecting its spawning and habitat. For example, rising water temperatures in the northwest Pacific Ocean are believed to have reduced the hatching rate of Japanese Spanish mackerel eggs and the survival
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjQ4ODYzNA==