International Journal of Marine Science, 2026, Vol.16, No.2, 127-140 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 138 feed conversion ratios and raised nitrogen and phosphorus utilization above 80%, transforming fish waste into additional biomass of finfish, shellfish, and vegetables. For marine grouper systems, floating treatment wetlands planted with halophytic species can simultaneously lower dissolved inorganic nitrogen and reduce CO₂ and N₂O emissions, providing co‑benefits for water quality and greenhouse gas mitigation. Complementary measures include reformulation of feeds to reduce phosphorus content without compromising growth, optimization of stocking density to balance production and stress, and adoption of energy‑efficient equipment to curb fuel and electricity use. Together, these green technologies and emission‑reduction practices reposition grouper cage culture on a trajectory that aligns productivity with ecological resilience and climate goals. Maintaining suitable water quality in cage‑cultured grouper requires aligning production intensity with ecological carrying capacity, supported by spatial planning and robust farm‑level practices. Real‑time monitoring and early warning systems enable rapid responses to environmental fluctuations and operational risks. Green technologies-ranging from IMTA and phytoremediation to low‑phosphorus feeds and energy‑efficient operations-substantially reduce nutrient emissions and greenhouse gas outputs, creating a more sustainable and resilient grouper aquaculture sector. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their detailed review of the draft. Their specific feedback helped us correct the logical loopholes in our arguments. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Al-Yahyai D.S., Gallardo W., Claereboudt M., and Bruss G., 2020, Spatio-temporal variation of water quality variables and hydrography in a seabream cage culture farm off the coast of Oman, Aquatic Living Resources, 33: 21. https://doi.org/10.1051/alr/2020022 Astuti L.P., Warsa A., Sentosa A.A., Tjahjo D.W.H., and Sembiring T., 2023, Phytoremediation for nutrient removal in an environmentally friendly floating cage system: a field experiment, Sains Malaysiana, 52(10): 2761-2772. https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2023-5210-03 Aura C., Awandu H., Mziri V., Awuor F.J., Nyamweya C.S., and Musa S., 2025, Optimizing stocking density for enhanced fish yield in lacustrine cage aquaculture, Scientific African, 28: e02721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02721 Burke M., Grant J., Filgueira R., and Stone T., 2020, Oceanographic processes control dissolved oxygen variability at a commercial Atlantic salmon farm: Application of a real-time sensor network, Aquaculture, 533: 736143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.736143 Cai Z.Z., Zeng J., Yang M.F., Lin Y.Q., Zheng H.D., Luo D.L., Jiang S.C., Guo T.Y., and Zheng S.H., 2023, Vertical distribution and pollution assessment of TN, TP, and TOC in the sediment cores of cage farming areas in Dongshan Bay of southeast China, Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11: 1216868. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1216868 Cao J., Mei J., and Xie J., 2024, Combined effects of hypoxia and ammonia-N exposure on the oxygen consumption, glucose metabolism and amino acid metabolism in hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀ × E. lanceolatus♂), Veterinary Research Communications, 48(3): 1521-1531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-024-10326-y Cheng A.C., Yang T.Y., Lai C.H., Li Y.S., Luo Y.F., and Chuang H.C., 2024, Economic benefit analysis of the application of eco-friendly aquaculture technology in the farming of groupers and the fourfinger threadfin, Journal of Environmental Management, 371: 123156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123156 Firayani F., 2024, The effect of stocking density on fish growth and survival in intensive cultivation systems, Aquapolis, 1(2): 25-33. https://doi.org/10.62872/a.v1i2.528 Grouazel M., Desroy N., Fiandrino A., Geoffroy T., Nahon S., Devillers S., and Callier M.D., 2025, Benthic ecological changes in response to fish farming waste deposition in tropical environment: combining field and modelling approaches, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 222: 118849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.118849 Ismi S., Astari B., and Mastuti I., 2023, Dynamics of water quality in grouper nurseries with flow through, recirculation and bioremediation systems, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1273(1): 012038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1273/1/012038 Jahangiri L., MacKinnon B., and St-Hilaire S., 2022, Infectious diseases reported in warm-water marine fish cage culture in East and Southeast Asia-A systematic review, Aquaculture Research, 53(6): 2081-2108. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15769
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