Animal Molecular Breeding, 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 39-48 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/amb 41 3.3 Role of gene-environment interactions in shaping behavior Gene-environment interactions form the core of the definition of canid behavior. From studies, it is clear that while there are some behavioral characteristics that are genetically determined, environmental pressures have significant influences on how they are expressed. Accepted as normal dog behavior in the modern breeds, for instance, is polygenic and environmentally determined with breed contributing marginally to the explanation of variation in behavior (Morrill et al., 2022). In addition, Tibetan and Himalayan wolves' adaptation to high-altitude environments as a result of ancient hybridization are the most clear demonstrations of how pressures from the environment can induce genetic adjustments influencing behavior and physiology (Wang et al., 2020). Such interactions highlight the interactive interface between genetics and environment in the evolution of canid behavior. 4 Behavioral Genetics of Wolves 4.1 Social structures and pack dynamics Wolves (Canis lupus) possess complex pack life and social structure required for reproductive success and survival. Packs are formed as well-adjusted societies where all group members have a specific role to assist in defending the land, hunting, and rearing young ones. Living together is driven by competition for resources and increased survivorship rates (Cordoni and Palagi, 2019). Within the pack, there is a clear hierarchy, but dominants are often aided by subordinates in exchange for being accepted socially, and commodity exchange is thereby witnessed. In addition, there is post-conflict behavior through reconciliation following aggression and victim sympathy, requiring social sensitivity and coordination ability in delivering the appropriate reaction. These are all testament to the sophisticated social interaction and cognition wolf pack existence relies upon. 4.2 Aggression, territoriality, and hunting behaviors Wolf aggression is influenced by both genetic and environmental conditions. Scientists have determined that interpack aggression is heritable with estimates of heritability ranging from 14% to 37% depending on the methods used. Aggression has several fitness-promoting advantages like better breeding and acquiring resources. Interpack aggression is strongly affected by relative pack size and reproductive status, illustrating how social processes and density-dependent processes generate variability in aggressive behaviors (Figure 1) (Schell, 2020). Wolves also are territorial, selecting habitats that maximize prey access and minimize human-caused mortality risk. For instance, packs with higher pup survival rates select hardwood forests and shun conifer forests, which correspond with the habitat selection of their main prey species (Oliveira et al., 2020). Figure 1 (a) Stabilizing selection favours moderately aggressive behaviours and phenotypes, maximizing resource acquisition while minimizing potential risk of injury due to excessive conflict. (b) Relative pack size (calculated as the size of the focal individual's resident pack relative to the competing pack; negative values indicate that the focal individual's pack was smaller) positively predicted interpack aggression strength. Focal individuals from smaller packs generally exhibited smaller IAS scores relative to those in larger packs. Colour-coding schema for (a~b) and data for (b) courtesy of vonHoldt et al. (2020) (Adopted from Schell, 2020)
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